C Programming Contents

• 1. Preface
  • 1.1. Acknowledgements
• 2. Introduction
  • 2.1. Why C?
  • 2.2. History
  • 2.3. Comparison with Other Languages
  • 2.4. How to Learn Programming
  • 2.5. What is a Computer Program?
  • 2.6. Attributes of a Program
  • 2.7. Tools of Trade
  • 2.8. Bits and Bytes
  • 2.9. Notes on Number System
    • 2.9.1. Binary Number System
      • 2.9.1.1. Conversion of Unsigned Decimals and Binaries
    • 2.9.2. 2’s Complement and 1’s Complement
  • 2.10. Compiling and Executing
  • 2.11. Wha GCC Flags Should You Choose?
  • 2.12. musl libc
• 3. Basics of C
  • 3.1. The C Character Set
  • 3.2. Keywords
  • 3.3. Identifiers
  • 3.4. Programming
  • 3.5. Data Types
    • 3.5.1. Integers
    • 3.5.2. Characters
    • 3.5.3. Floating Types
      • 3.5.3.1. Representation of Floating-Point Numbers
  • 3.6. New Data Types of C99
  • 3.7. Boolean Types
  • 3.8. Complex Types
  • 3.9. Void and Enum Types
  • 3.10. Constants
  • 3.11. Escape Sequences
• 4. Console I/O
  • 4.1. C’s Memory Model
  • 4.2. printf
  • 4.3. scanf
  • 4.4. Character String I/O Functions
  • 4.5. Single Character I/O
• 5. Operators and Expressions
  • 5.1. Scope of an Identifier
  • 5.2. Linkages of an Identifier
  • 5.3. Storage Duration of Objects
    • 5.3.1. Usual Arithmetic Conversions
    • 5.3.2. Expressions
      • 5.3.2.1. Primary Expressions
    • 5.3.3. Operators
    • 5.3.4. Additive Operators
    • 5.3.5. Multiplicative Operators
    • 5.3.6. Relational Operators
    • 5.3.7. Equality Operators
    • 5.3.8. Increment and Decrement Operators
    • 5.3.9. Logical Operators
    • 5.3.10. Bitwise Operators
    • 5.3.11. Bitwise Shift Operators
    • 5.3.12. Assignment Operators
      • 5.3.12.1. Simple Assignment
      • 5.3.12.2. Compound Assignment
      • 5.3.12.3. Conditoinal Operators
      • 5.3.12.4. Comma Operators
      • 5.3.12.5. sizeof Operators
      • 5.3.12.6. Unary Arithmetic Operators
    • 5.3.13. Grouping parentheses
• 6. Control Flow
  • 6.1. Storage Classes
  • 6.2. if-else Statement
    • 6.2.1. Dangling Else Problem
  • 6.3. switch Statement
  • 6.4. while Loop
  • 6.5. do while Loop
  • 6.6. for Loop
  • 6.7. break and continue Statements
  • 6.8. typedef and return Statements
• 7. Arrays and Pointers
  • 7.1. Single-Dimensional Array
  • 7.2. Multi-Dimensional Array
  • 7.3. Pointers
  • 7.4. Address and Indirection Operators
  • 7.5. Arrays of Pointers
  • 7.6. Pointers of Pointers
  • 7.7. realloc() Function
  • 7.8. free() Function
  • 7.9. Constness
• 8. Functions
  • 8.1. Pass-by-value
  • 8.2. Pass-by-address
  • 8.3. Recursion
  • 8.4. Function Like Macros
  • 8.5. inline Functions
  • 8.6. Function Pointers
  • 8.7. Passing and Receiving Function Pointers
  • 8.8. Type Generic Functions
    • 8.8.1. Another Example
    • 8.8.2. Type Compatibilty in an Expression
• 9. Structures and Unions
  • 9.1. Pointer members of a Structure
  • 9.2. Usage of Structures and Unions
  • 9.3. Structures and Arrays
• 10. Strings
  • 10.1. Useful Functions
    • 10.1.1. strlen and strlen Functions
    • 10.1.2. strcpy and strncpy Functions
    • 10.1.3. strcat and strncat Functions
    • 10.1.4. strcmp and strncmp Functions
    • 10.1.5. strstr, strchr and strrchr Functions
    • 10.1.6. strerror Function
    • 10.1.7. strtok Function
• 11. File Input/Output
  • 11.1. Text and Binary Files
  • 11.2. Functions Related to Files
    • 11.2.1. fopen and fclose Function
    • 11.2.2. fputc and fgetc Function
  • 11.3. File Poisitoning Functions
    • 11.3.1. fgetpos Function
    • 11.3.2. fseek Function
    • 11.3.3. fsetpos Function
    • 11.3.4. ftell Function
    • 11.3.5. rewind Function
  • 11.4. Stream Buffering
    • 11.4.1. fflush Function
  • 11.5. Controlling Buffering
  • 11.6. Peeking Ahead ungetc Function
  • 11.7. Operation on Files
• 12. Preprocessing Directives
  • 12.1. Conditional Inclusion
  • 12.2. Source File Inclusion
  • 12.3. Macro Replacement
    • 12.3.1. Argument Substitution
    • 12.3.2. The # Operator
    • 12.3.3. The ## Operator
    • 12.3.4. Rescanning and Further Replacement
    • 12.3.5. Scope of Macro Definitions
  • 12.4. Line Control
  • 12.5. Error directive
  • 12.6. Pragma Directive
  • 12.7. Null Directive
  • 12.8. Predefined Macro Names
  • 12.9. Pragma Operator
  • 12.10. Usage
    • 12.10.1. #include
    • 12.10.2. Why We Need Headers
    • 12.10.3. #define
    • 12.10.4. #undef
    • 12.10.5. # and ##
    • 12.10.6. #error
    • 12.10.7. #pragma
    • 12.10.8. Miscellaneous
• 13. Bit Manipulation
  • 13.1. Basics
  • 13.2. Shifts and division
  • 13.3. 2’s Complement
  • 13.4. Average of two numbers
  • 13.5. Swapping two numbers without using a temporary
  • 13.6. Finding next even or odd number
  • 13.7. Operations on bits
    • 13.7.1. Testing a bit
    • 13.7.2. Setting a bit
    • 13.7.3. Clearing a bit
    • 13.7.4. Toggling a bit
    • 13.7.5. Copying bits
    • 13.7.6. Swapping even and odd bits of a number
• 14. Multi-threaded Programming
• 15. Tools for C Programming(gdb and gcc and others)
  • 15.1. Most used gcc options
  • 15.2. Multi-file programs, static and dynamic libraries
  • 15.3. Creating static and dynamic libraries
  • 15.4. Introduction to gdb
  • 15.5. Getting help
• 16. The C Standard Library
  • 16.1. Introduction
    • 16.1.1. Definitions of terms
    • 16.1.2. Standard Headers
    • 16.1.3. Reserved Identifiers
    • 16.1.4. Use of Library Functions
• 17. Diagnostics <assert.h>
  • 17.1. Program diagnostics
    • 17.1.1. The assert macro
• 18. Complex arithmetic <complex.h>
  • 18.1. Introduction
  • 18.2. Conventions
  • 18.3. Branch Cuts
  • 18.4. The CX_LIMITED_RANGE Pragma
  • 18.5. Trigonometric Functions
    • 18.5.1. The cacos Functions
    • 18.5.2. The casin Functions
    • 18.5.3. The catan Functions
    • 18.5.4. The ccos functions
    • 18.5.5. The csin functions
    • 18.5.6. The ctan functions
  • 18.6. Hyperbolic functions
    • 18.6.1. The cacosh functions
    • 18.6.2. The casinh functions
    • 18.6.3. The catanh functions
    • 18.6.4. The ccosh functions
    • 18.6.5. The csinh functions
    • 18.6.6. The ctanh functions
  • 18.7. Exponential and logarithmic functions
    • 18.7.1. The cexp functions
    • 18.7.2. The clog functions
  • 18.8. Power and absolute-value functions
    • 18.8.1. The cabs functions
    • 18.8.2. The cpow functions
    • 18.8.3. The csqrt functions
  • 18.9. Manipulation functions
    • 18.9.1. The carg functions
    • 18.9.2. The cimag functions
    • 18.9.3. The conj functions
    • 18.9.4. The cproj functions
    • 18.9.5. The creal functions
• 19. Character Handling <ctype.h>
  • 19.1. Character classification functions
    • 19.1.1. The isalnum function
    • 19.1.2. The isalpha function
    • 19.1.3. The isblank function
    • 19.1.4. The iscntrl function
    • 19.1.5. The isdigit function
    • 19.1.6. The isgraph function
    • 19.1.7. The islower function
    • 19.1.8. The isprint function
    • 19.1.9. The ispunct function
    • 19.1.10. The isspace function
    • 19.1.11. The isupper function
    • 19.1.12. The isxdigit function
• 20. Errors <errno.h>
• 21. Floating-point environment <fenv.h>
  • 21.1. The FENV_ACCESS pragma
  • 21.2. Floating-point exceptions
    • 21.2.1. The feclearexcept function
    • 21.2.2. The fegetexceptflag function
    • 21.2.3. The feraiseexcept function
    • 21.2.4. The fesetexceptflag function
    • 21.2.5. The fetestexcept function
  • 21.3. Rounding
    • 21.3.1. The fegetround function
    • 21.3.2. The fesetround function
  • 21.4. Environment
    • 21.4.1. The fegetenv function
    • 21.4.2. The feholdexcept function
    • 21.4.3. The fesetenv function
    • 21.4.4. The feupdateenv function
• 22. Characteristics of floating types <float.h>
• 23. Format conversion of integer types <inttypes.h>
  • 23.1. Macros for format specifiers
  • 23.2. Functions for greatest-width integer types
    • 23.2.1. The imaxabs function
    • 23.2.2. The imaxdiv function
    • 23.2.3. The strtoimax and strtoumax functions
    • 23.2.4. The wcstoimax and wcstoumax functions
• 24. Alternative spellings <iso646.h>
• 25. Sizes of integer types <limits.h>
• 26. Localization <locale.h>
  • 26.1. Locale control
    • 26.1.1. The setlocale function
  • 26.2. Numeric formatting convention inquiry
    • 26.2.1. The localeconv function
• 27. Mathematics <math.h>
  • 27.1. Treatment of error conditions
  • 27.2. The FP_CONTRACT pragma
  • 27.3. Classification macros
    • 27.3.1. The fpclassify macro
    • 27.3.2. The isfinite macro
    • 27.3.3. The isinf macro
    • 27.3.4. The isnan macro
    • 27.3.5. The isnormal macro
    • 27.3.6. The signbit macro
  • 27.4. Trigonometric functions
    • 27.4.1. The acos functions
    • 27.4.2. The asin functions
    • 27.4.3. The atan functions
    • 27.4.4. The atan2 functions
    • 27.4.5. The cos functions
    • 27.4.6. The sin functions
    • 27.4.7. The tan functions
  • 27.5. Hyperbolic functions
    • 27.5.1. The acosh functions
    • 27.5.2. The asinh functions
    • 27.5.3. The atanh functions
    • 27.5.4. The cosh functions
    • 27.5.5. The sinh functions
    • 27.5.6. The tanh functions
  • 27.6. Exponential and logarithmic functions
    • 27.6.1. The exp functions
    • 27.6.2. The exp2 functions
    • 27.6.3. The expm1 functions
    • 27.6.4. The frexp functions
    • 27.6.5. The ilogb functions
    • 27.6.6. The ldexp functions
    • 27.6.7. The log functions
    • 27.6.8. The log10 functions
    • 27.6.9. The log1p functions
    • 27.6.10. The log2 functions
    • 27.6.11. The logb functions
    • 27.6.12. The modf functions
    • 27.6.13. The scalbn and scalbln functions
  • 27.7. Power and absolute-value functions
    • 27.7.1. The cbrt functions
    • 27.7.2. The fabs functions
    • 27.7.3. The hypot functions
    • 27.7.4. The pow functions
    • 27.7.5. The sqrt functions
  • 27.8. Error and gamma functions
    • 27.8.1. The erf functions
    • 27.8.2. The erfc functions
    • 27.8.3. The lgamma functions
    • 27.8.4. The tgamma functions
  • 27.9. Nearest integer functions
    • 27.9.1. The ceil functions
    • 27.9.2. The floor functions
    • 27.9.3. The nearbyint functions
    • 27.9.4. The rint functions
    • 27.9.5. The lrint and llrint functions
    • 27.9.6. The round functions
    • 27.9.7. The lround and llround functions
    • 27.9.8. The trunc functions
  • 27.10. Remainder functions
    • 27.10.1. The fmod functions
    • 27.10.2. The remainder functions
    • 27.10.3. The remquo functions
  • 27.11. Manipulation functions
    • 27.11.1. The copysign functions
    • 27.11.2. The nan functions
    • 27.11.3. The nextafter functions
    • 27.11.4. The nexttoward functions
  • 27.12. Maximum, minimum and positive difference functions
    • 27.12.1. The fdim functions
    • 27.12.2. The fmax functions
    • 27.12.3. The fmin functions
  • 27.13. Floating multiply-add
    • 27.13.1. The fma functions
  • 27.14. Comparison macros
    • 27.14.1. The isgreater macro
    • 27.14.2. The isgreaterequal macro
    • 27.14.3. The isless macro
    • 27.14.4. The islessequal macro
    • 27.14.5. The islessgreater macro
    • 27.14.6. The isunordered macro
• 28. Nonlocal jumps <setjmp.h>
  • 28.1. Save calling environment
    • 28.1.1. The setjmp macro
  • 28.2. Restore calling environment
    • 28.2.1. The longjmp function
• 29. Signal handling <signal.h>
  • 29.1. Specify signal handling
    • 29.1.1. The signal function
  • 29.2. Send signal
    • 29.2.1. The raise function
• 30. Alignment <stdalign.h>
• 31. Atomics <stdatomic.h>
  • 31.1. Introduction
  • 31.2. Initialization
    • 31.2.1. The ATOMIC_VAR_INIT macro
    • 31.2.2. The atomic_init generic function
  • 31.3. Order and consistency
• 32. Variable arguments <stdarg.h>
  • 32.1. Variable argument list access macros
    • 32.1.1. The va_arg macro
    • 32.1.2. The va_copy macro
    • 32.1.3. The va_end macro
    • 32.1.4. The va_start macro
• 33. Boolean type and values <stdbool.h>
• 34. Common definitions <stddef.h>
• 35. Integer types <stdint.h>
  • 35.1. Integer types
    • 35.1.1. Exact-width integer types
    • 35.1.2. Minimum-width integer types
    • 35.1.3. Fastest minimum-width integer types
    • 35.1.4. Integer types capable of holding object pointers
    • 35.1.5. Greatest-width integer types
  • 35.2. Limits of specified-width integer types
    • 35.2.1. Limits of exact-width integer types
    • 35.2.2. Limits of minimum-width integer types
    • 35.2.3. Limits of fastest minimum-width integer types
    • 35.2.4. Limits of integer types capable of holding object pointers
    • 35.2.5. Limits of greatest-width integer types
  • 35.3. Limits of other integer types
  • 35.4. Macros for integer constants
    • 35.4.1. Macros for minimum-width integer constants
    • 35.4.2. Macros for greatest-width integer constants
• 36. Input/output <stdio.h>
  • 36.1. Introduction
  • 36.2. Streams
  • 36.3. Files
  • 36.4. Operations on files
    • 36.4.1. The remove function
    • 36.4.2. The rename function
    • 36.4.3. The tmpfile function
    • 36.4.4. The tmpnam function
  • 36.5. File access functions
    • 36.5.1. The fclose function
    • 36.5.2. The fflush function
    • 36.5.3. The fopen function
    • 36.5.4. The freopen function
    • 36.5.5. The setbuf function
    • 36.5.6. The setvbuf function
  • 36.6. Formatted input/output functions
    • 36.6.1. The fprintf function
    • 36.6.2. The fscanf function
    • 36.6.3. The printf function
    • 36.6.4. The scanf function
    • 36.6.5. The snprintf function
    • 36.6.6. The sprintf function
    • 36.6.7. The sscanf function
    • 36.6.8. The vfprintf function
    • 36.6.9. The vfscanf function
    • 36.6.10. The vprintf function
    • 36.6.11. The vscanf function
    • 36.6.12. The vsnprintf function
    • 36.6.13. The vsprintf function
    • 36.6.14. The vsscanf function
  • 36.7. Character input/output functions
    • 36.7.1. The fgetc function
    • 36.7.2. The fgets function
    • 36.7.3. The fputc function
    • 36.7.4. The fputs function
    • 36.7.5. The getc function
    • 36.7.6. The getchar function
    • 36.7.7. The gets function
    • 36.7.8. The putc function
    • 36.7.9. The putchar function
    • 36.7.10. The puts function
    • 36.7.11. The ungetc function
  • 36.8. Direct input/output functions
    • 36.8.1. The fread function
    • 36.8.2. The fwrite function
  • 36.9. File positioning functions
    • 36.9.1. The fgetpos function
    • 36.9.2. The fseek function
    • 36.9.3. The fsetpos function
    • 36.9.4. The ftell function
    • 36.9.5. The rewind function
  • 36.10. Error-handling functions
    • 36.10.1. The clearerr function
    • 36.10.2. The feof function
    • 36.10.3. The ferror function
    • 36.10.4. The perror function
• 37. General utilities <stdlib.h>
  • 37.1. Numeric conversion functions
    • 37.1.1. The atof function
    • 37.1.2. The atoi, atol and atoll functions
    • 37.1.3. The strtod, strtof and strtold functions
    • 37.1.4. The strtol, strtoll, strtoul and strtoull functions
  • 37.2. Pseudo-random sequence generation functions
    • 37.2.1. The rand function
    • 37.2.2. The srand function
  • 37.3. Memory management functions
    • 37.3.1. The calloc function
    • 37.3.2. The free function
    • 37.3.3. The malloc function
    • 37.3.4. The realloc function
  • 37.4. Communication with the environment
    • 37.4.1. The abort function
    • 37.4.2. The atexit function
    • 37.4.3. The exit function
    • 37.4.4. The _Exit function
    • 37.4.5. The getenv function
    • 37.4.6. The system function
  • 37.5. Searching and sorting utilities
    • 37.5.1. The bsearch function
    • 37.5.2. The qsort function
  • 37.6. Integer arithmetic functions
    • 37.6.1. The abs, labs and llabs functions
    • 37.6.2. The div, ldiv and lldiv functions
  • 37.7. Multibyte/wide character conversion functions
    • 37.7.1. The mblen function
    • 37.7.2. The mbtowc function
    • 37.7.3. The wctomb function
  • 37.8. Multibyte/wide string conversion functions
    • 37.8.1. The mbstowcs function
    • 37.8.2. The wcstombs function
• 38. String handling <string.h>
  • 38.1. String function conventions
  • 38.2. Copying functions
    • 38.2.1. The memcpy function
    • 38.2.2. The memmove function
    • 38.2.3. The strcpy function
    • 38.2.4. The strncpy function
  • 38.3. Concatenation functions
    • 38.3.1. The strcat function
    • 38.3.2. The strncat function
  • 38.4. Comparison functions
    • 38.4.1. The memcmp function
    • 38.4.2. The strcmp function
    • 38.4.3. The strcoll function
    • 38.4.4. The strncmp function
    • 38.4.5. The strxfrm function
  • 38.5. Search functions
    • 38.5.1. The memchr function
    • 38.5.2. The strchr function
    • 38.5.3. The strcspn function
    • 38.5.4. The strpbrk function
    • 38.5.5. The strrchr function
    • 38.5.6. The strspn function
    • 38.5.7. The strstr function
    • 38.5.8. The strtok function
  • 38.6. Miscellaneous functions
    • 38.6.1. The memset function
    • 38.6.2. The strerror function
    • 38.6.3. The strlen function
• 39. Type-generic math <tgmath.h>
• 40. Date and time <time.h>
  • 40.1. Components of time
  • 40.2. Time manipulation functions
    • 40.2.1. The clock function
    • 40.2.2. The difftime function
    • 40.2.3. The mktime function
    • 40.2.4. The time function
  • 40.3. Time conversion functions
    • 40.3.1. The asctime function
    • 40.3.2. The ctime function
    • 40.3.3. The gmtime function
    • 40.3.4. The localtime function
    • 40.3.5. The strftime function
• 41. Extended multibyte and wide character utilities <wchar.h>
  • 41.1. Introduction
  • 41.2. Formatted wide character input/output functions
    • 41.2.1. The fwprintf function
    • 41.2.2. The fwscanf function
    • 41.2.3. The swprintf function
    • 41.2.4. The swscanf function
    • 41.2.5. The vfwprintf function
    • 41.2.6. The vfwscanf function
    • 41.2.7. The vswprintf function
    • 41.2.8. The vswscanf function
    • 41.2.9. The vwprintf function
    • 41.2.10. The vwscanf function
    • 41.2.11. The wprintf function
    • 41.2.12. The wscanf function
  • 41.3. Wide character input/output functions
    • 41.3.1. The fgetwc function
    • 41.3.2. The fgetws function
    • 41.3.3. The fputwc function
    • 41.3.4. The fputws function
    • 41.3.5. The fwide function
    • 41.3.6. The getwc function
    • 41.3.7. The getwchar function
    • 41.3.8. The putwc function
    • 41.3.9. The putwchar function
    • 41.3.10. The ungetwc function
  • 41.4. General wide string utilities
    • 41.4.1. Wide string numeric conversion functions
      • 41.4.1.1. The wcstod, wcstof and wcstold functions
      • 41.4.1.2. The wcstol, wcstoll, wcstoul and wcstoull functions
    • 41.4.2. Wide string copying functions
      • 41.4.2.1. The wcscpy function
      • 41.4.2.2. The wcsncpy function
      • 41.4.2.3. The wmemcpy function
      • 41.4.2.4. The wmemmove function
    • 41.4.3. Wide string concatenation functions
      • 41.4.3.1. The wcscat function
      • 41.4.3.2. The wcsncat function
    • 41.4.4. Wide string comparison functions
      • 41.4.4.1. The wcscmp function
      • 41.4.4.2. The wcscoll function
      • 41.4.4.3. The wcsncmp function
      • 41.4.4.4. The wcsxfrm function
      • 41.4.4.5. The wmemcmp function
    • 41.4.5. Wide string search functions
      • 41.4.5.1. The wcschr function
      • 41.4.5.2. The wcscspn function
      • 41.4.5.3. The wcspbrk function
      • 41.4.5.4. The wcsrchr function
      • 41.4.5.5. The wcsspn function
      • 41.4.5.6. The wcsstr function
      • 41.4.5.7. The wcstok function
      • 41.4.5.8. The wmemchr function
    • 41.4.6. Miscellaneous functions
      • 41.4.6.1. The wcslen function
      • 41.4.6.2. The wmemset function
  • 41.5. Wide character time conversion functions
    • 41.5.1. The wcsftime function
  • 41.6. Extended multibyte/wide character conversion utilities
    • 41.6.1. Single-byte/wide character conversion functions
      • 41.6.1.1. The btowc function
      • 41.6.1.2. The wctob function
    • 41.6.2. Conversion state functions
      • 41.6.2.1. The mbsinit function
    • 41.6.3. Restartable multibyte/wide character conversion functions
      • 41.6.3.1. The mbrlen function
      • 41.6.3.2. The mbrtowc function
      • 41.6.3.3. The wcrtomb function
    • 41.6.4. Restartable multibyte/wide string conversion functions
      • 41.6.4.1. The mbsrtowcs function
      • 41.6.4.2. The wcsrtombs function
• 42. Wide character classification and mapping utilities <wctype.h>
  • 42.1. Introduction
  • 42.2. Wide character classification utilities
    • 42.2.1. Wide character classification functions
      • 42.2.1.1. The iswalnum function
      • 42.2.1.2. The iswalpha function
      • 42.2.1.3. The iswblank function
      • 42.2.1.4. The iswcntrl function
      • 42.2.1.5. The iswdigit function
      • 42.2.1.6. The iswgraph function
      • 42.2.1.7. The iswlower function
      • 42.2.1.8. The iswprint function
      • 42.2.1.9. The iswpunct function
      • 42.2.1.10. The iswspace function
      • 42.2.1.11. The iswupper function
      • 42.2.1.12. The iswxdigit function
    • 42.2.2. Extensible wide character classification functions
      • 42.2.2.1. The iswctype function
      • 42.2.2.2. The wctype function
  • 42.3. Wide character case mapping utilities
    • 42.3.1. Wide character case mapping functions
      • 42.3.1.1. The towlower function
      • 42.3.1.2. The towupper function
    • 42.3.2. Extensible wide character case mapping functions
      • 42.3.2.1. The towctrans function
      • 42.3.2.2. The wctrans function
• 43. Problems
• 44. License

Indices and tables

• Index